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The Vietnamese alphabet (Vietnamese: chữ Quá»c ngữ, lit.â'Characters/script of the national language', IPA: [tÍ¡Éɨ˦ËË¥ kuÉkÌ˧˦ Åɨ˦ËË¥]) is the modern writing script for Vietnamese. It uses the Latin script based on Romance languages[6] originally developed by Portuguese missionary Francisco de Pina (1585â1625).[1]
Vietnamese alphabet chữ Quá»c ngữ | |
---|---|
Script type | |
Creator | Portuguese and Italian Jesuits[1][2][3][4] and Alexandre de Rhodes |
Languages | Vietnamese, other indigenous languages of Vietnam |
Related scripts | |
Parent systems | |
Child systems | Bahnar alphabet, Cham alphabet, Nùng alphabet, Tà y alphabet[5] |
The Vietnamese alphabet contains 29 letters, including seven letters using four diacritics: â¨Äâ©, â¨Ã¢â©, â¨Ãªâ©, â¨Ã´â©, â¨Æ¡â©, â¨Æ°â©, and â¨Äâ©. There are an additional five diacritics used to designate tone (as in â¨Ã â©, â¨Ã¡â©, â¨áº£â©, â¨Ã£â©, and â¨áº¡â©). The complex vowel system and the large number of letters with diacritics, which can stack twice on the same letter (e.g. nhất meaning 'first'), makes it easy to distinguish the Vietnamese orthography from other writing systems that use the Latin script.[7]
The Vietnamese system's use of diacritics produces an accurate transcription for tones despite the limitations of the Roman alphabet. On the other hand, sound changes in the spoken language have led to different letters, digraphs and trigraphs now representing the same sounds.
Letter names and pronunciation
editVietnamese uses 22 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The four remaining letters are not considered part of the Vietnamese alphabet although they are used to write loanwords, languages of other ethnic groups in the country based on Vietnamese phonetics to differentiate the meanings or even Vietnamese dialects, for example: â¨dzâ© or â¨zâ© for southerner pronunciation of â¨vâ© in standard Vietnamese.
In total, there are 12 vowels (nguyên âm) and 17 consonants (phụ âm, literally 'extra sound').
Letter | Input keys | Name (when pronounced) |
IPA | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TELEX | VNI | Hanoi | NghỠAn | Sà i Gòn | ||
A, a | a | ÊaË˧˧ | ÊaË˧˥ | ÊaË˧˧ | ||
Ä, Ä | AW
|
A8
|
á | ÊaË˧˥ | ÊaËË©Ë© | ÊaË˧˥ |
Ã, â | AA
|
A6
|
á» | ÊÉË˧˥ | ÊÉËË©Ë© | ÊÉË˧˥ |
B, b | bê | ÊÉe˧˧ | ÊÉe˧˥ | ÊÉe˧˧ | ||
C, c | xê | se˧˧ | se˧˥ | se˧˧ | ||
D, d | dê | ze˧˧ | ze˧˥ | je˧˧ | ||
Ä, Ä | DD
|
D9
|
Äê | ÊÉe˧˧ | ÊÉe˧˥ | ÊÉe˧˧ |
E, e | e | ÊÉ˧˧ | ÊÉ˧˥ | ÊÉ˧˧ | ||
Ã, ê | EE
|
E6
|
ê | Êe˧˧ | Êe˧˥ | Êe˧˧ |
G, g | giê | zÉ˧˧ | zÉ˧˥ | jÉ˧˧ | ||
H, h | hát | haËt˧˥ | haËtË©Ë© | haËk˧˥ | ||
I, i | i | Êi˧˧ | Êi˧˥ | Êi˧˧ | ||
K, k | ka | kaË˧˧ | kaË˧˥ | kaË˧˧ | ||
L, l | e-lá» | ÊÉ˧˧ lÉ̤Ë˨˩ | ÊÉ˧˥ lÉË˧˧ | ÊÉ˧˧ lÉË˨˩ | ||
M, m | em-má» | ÊÉm˧˧ mÉ̤Ë˨˩ | ÊÉm˧˥ mÉË˧˧ | ÊÉm˧˧ mÉË˨˩ | ||
N, n | en-ná» | ÊÉn˧˧ nÉ̤Ë˨˩ | ÊÉn˧˥ nÉË˧˧ | ÊÉÅ˧˧ nÉË˨˩ | ||
O, o | o | ÊÉ˧˧ | ÊÉ˧˥ | ÊÉ˧˧ | ||
Ã, ô | OO
|
O6
|
ô | Êo˧˧ | Êo˧˥ | Êo˧˧ |
Æ , Æ¡ | OW
|
O7
|
Æ¡ | ÊÉË˧˧ | ÊÉË˧˥ | ÊÉË˧˧ |
P, p | pê | pe˧˧ | pe˧˥ | pe˧˧ | ||
Q, q | quy | kwi˧˧ | kwi˧˥ | wi˧˧ | ||
R, r | e-rá» | ÊÉ˧˧ zÉ̤Ë˨˩ | ÊÉ˧˥ ɹÉË˧˧ | ÊÉ˧˧ ɹÉË˨˩ | ||
S, s | ét-sì | ÊÉt˧˥ si̤˨˩ | ÊÉtË©Ë© si˧˧ | ÊÉk˧˥ Êi˨˩ | ||
T, t | tê | te˧˧ | te˧˥ | te˧˧ | ||
U, u | u | Êu˧˧ | Êu˧˥ | Êu˧˧ | ||
Ư, ư | UW/W
|
U7
|
Æ° | Êɨ˧˧ | Êɨ˧˥ | Êɨ˧˧ |
V, v | vê | ve˧˧ | ve˧˥ | je˧˧ | ||
X, x | Ãch-xì | Êik˧˥ si̤˨˩ | ÊikË©Ë© si˧˧ | Êɨt˧˥ si˨˩ | ||
Y, y | i dà i | Êi˧˧ za̤Ëj˨˩ | Êi˧˥ zaËj˧˧ | Êi˧˧ jaËj˨˩ |
- Notes
Letter | Name (when pronounced) |
Hà Ná»i | Nghá» An | Sà i Gòn | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | Phoneme | IPA | Phoneme | IPA | Phoneme | ||
F, f | ép | ÊÉp˧˥ | /f/ | ÊÉpË©Ë© | /f/ | ÊÉp˧˥ | /f/ |
J, j | gi | zi̤˧˧ | /z/ | ji˧˥ | /z/ | ji˧˧ | /j/ |
W, w | vê kép | ve˧˧ kÉp˧˥ | /w/ | ve˧˥ kÉpË©Ë© | /w/ | je˧˧ kÉp˧˥ | /w/ |
Z, z | giét | zÉt˧˥ | /z/ | zÉtË©Ë© | /z/ | jÉk˧˥ | /j/ |
- The vowels in the table are bolded and italicized.
- The use of the terms bê or bá» to refer to â¨bâ© and as pê or pá» to refer to â¨pâ© is to avoid confusion in some contexts, the same for â¨sâ© as sá» mạnh or sá» nặng. (literally, 'strong s' or 'heavy s') and â¨xâ© as xá» nhẹ (literally, 'light x'), â¨iâ© as i ngắn (literally, 'short i') and â¨yâ© as y dà i (literally, 'long y').
- â¨qâ© is always followed by â¨uâ© in every word and phrase in Vietnamese, e.g. quần 'trousers', quyến rÅ© 'to attract', etc.
- The name i-cá»-rét for â¨yâ© is from the French name for the letter: i grec (literally, 'Greek i'),[9] referring to the letter's origin from the Greek letter upsilon. The other obsolete French pronunciations include â¨eâ© (/ÉË˧/) and â¨uâ© (/wi˧/).
- The Vietnamese alphabet does not contain the 4 letters â¨fâ© (ép, ép-phá»), â¨jâ© (gi), â¨wâ© (u kép 'double u', vê kép, vê Äúp 'double v') and â¨zâ© (giét). However, these letters are often used for foreign loanwords (even partially adapted ones: flo 'fluorine', jun 'joule', bazÆ¡ 'base') or may be kept for foreign names.
- â¨yâ© is most commonly treated as a vowel along with â¨iâ©. â¨iâ© represents 'short /i˧/' and â¨yâ© represents 'long /i˧/'. â¨yâ© can have tones as well as other vowels (â¨Ã½â©, â¨á»³â©, â¨á»¹â©, â¨á»·â©, â¨á»µâ©) e.g. Mỹ 'America'. It may also act as a consonant (when used after â¨Ã¢â© and â¨aâ©). It can sometimes be used to replace â¨iâ©, e.g. bánh mì 'bread' can also be written bánh mỳ.
- â¨sâ© and â¨xâ© are similar to each other in sound in Vietnamese and can sometimes replace each other e.g. sÆ°Æ¡ng xáo or sÆ°Æ¡ng sáo 'grass jelly'.
Middle Vietnamese alphabet
editVietnamese alphabet in the Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum of Alexandre de Rhodes has 23 letters:
At majuscule | A | B | ê | C | D | Ä | E | G | H | I | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | V | X | Y |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
At minuscule | a | b | c | d | e | g | h | i | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | Å¿/s | t | v/u | x | y |
In this dictionary, there are fewer letters than the modern alphabet. The letters Ä, â, ê, ô, Æ¡, Æ°, are regarded as separate letters in the modern alphabet and they're in the dictionary but the author doesn't regard them as separate letters. In the dictionary, a letter can have one or two diacritics like à , ạ, Ä, ằ, ặ are not separate out of the letter a; à , ạ, Ä, ằ, ặ just be regarded as the letter a with diacritics.
In the alphabet, there is a letter that is no longer being used. It is the letter b with flourish ê, and it was used to represents the voiced bilabial fricative /β/.[10]
Two letters ê and Ä is neither majuscule nor minuscule.[11] So with these two letters, the name of two provinces Äá»ng Nai and Lâm Äá»ng will be Äá»ng Nai and Lâm Äá»ng. In the modern alphabet, minuscule of Ä is Ä, and the majuscule of Ä is Ä.
There are two variants of minuscule s: the long s: Å¿ and the short s: s. In the modern alphabet, the long s Å¿ is no longer being used, the short s s is the only variant of s.
Normal v in the dictionary has two variants: the normal v: v and the curving-bottom v: u.[12] In the 17th century, v and u were not different letters, v being a variant of u.[13]
Consonants
editThe alphabet is largely derived from Portuguese with some influence from French[citation needed], although the usage of â¨ghâ© and â¨giâ© was borrowed from Italian (compare ghetto, Giuseppe) and that for â¨c, k, quâ© from (Latinised) Greek and Latin (compare canis, kinesis, quÅ vÄdis), mirroring the English usage of these letters (compare cat, kite, queen).
10 digraphs consist: â¨châ©, â¨ghâ©, â¨giâ©, â¨khâ©, â¨ngâ©, â¨nhâ©, â¨phâ©, â¨quâ©, â¨thâ©, â¨trâ©, and only one trigraph â¨nghâ©.
Grapheme | Word-initial (IPA) | Word-final | Notes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Northern | Southern | Northern | Southern | ||
B b | /É/ | ||||
C c | /k/ | /kÌ/ | â¨kâ© is used instead when preceding â¨i, y, e, êâ©. â¨quâ© is used instead of â¨co, cuâ© if a /w/ on-glide exists. Realized as [kÍ¡p] word-finally following rounded vowels â¨u, ô, oâ©. | ||
Ch ch | /tÉ/ | /c/ | /ʲk/ | /tÌ/ | Multiple phonemic analyses of final â¨châ© have been proposed (main article). |
D d | /z/ | /j/ | In Middle Vietnamese, â¨dâ© represented /ð/. The distinction between â¨dâ© and â¨giâ© is now purely etymological in most modern dialects. | ||
Ä Ä | /É/ | ||||
G g | /É£/ | ||||
Gh gh | Used instead of â¨gâ© before â¨i, e, êâ©, seemingly to follow the Italian convention. â¨gâ© is not allowed in these environments. | ||||
Gi gi | /z/ | /j/ | In Middle Vietnamese, â¨giâ© represented /Ê/. The distinction between â¨dâ© and â¨giâ© is now purely etymological in most modern dialects. Realized as [Ê] in Northern spelling pronunciation. Spelled â¨gâ© before another â¨iâ©.[a] | ||
H h | /h/ | ||||
K k | /k/ | Used instead of â¨câ© before â¨i, y, e, ê⩠to follow the European tradition. â¨câ© is not allowed in these environments. | |||
Kh kh | /x/ | In Middle Vietnamese, â¨khâ© represented [kÊ°] | |||
L l | /l/ | ||||
M m | /m/ | /m/ | |||
N n | /n/ | /n/ | /Å/ | In Southern Vietnamese, word-final â¨nâ© is realized as [Å] if not following â¨i, êâ©. | |
Ng ng | /Å/ | /Å/ | Realized as [ÅÍ¡m] word finally after rounded vowels â¨u, ô, oâ©. | ||
Ngh ngh | Spelling used instead of â¨ngâ© before â¨i, e, ê⩠in accordance with â¨ghâ©. | ||||
Nh nh | /ɲ/ | /ʲÅ/ | /n/ | Multiple phonemic analyses of final â¨nhâ© have been proposed (main article). | |
P p | /p/ | /p/ | Only occurs initially in loanwords. Some Vietnamese pronounce it as a "b" sound instead (as in Arabic). | ||
Ph ph | /f/ | In Middle Vietnamese, â¨phâ© represented [pÊ°] | |||
Qu qu | /kÊ·/ | /w/ | Used in place of â¨co cuâ© if a /w/ on-glide exists. | ||
R r | /z/ | /r/ | Variably pronounced as a fricative [Ê], approximant [ɹ], flap [ɾ] or trill [r] in Southern speech. | ||
S s | /s/ | /Ê/ | Realized as [Ê] in Northern spelling pronunciation. | ||
T t | /t/ | /tÌ/ | /k/ | In Southern Vietnamese, word-final â¨tâ© is realized as [k] if not following â¨i, êâ©. | |
Th th | /tÊ°/ | ||||
Tr tr | /tÉ/ | /Ê/ | Realized as [tÊ] in Northern spelling pronunciation. | ||
V v | /v/ | /v/~/j/ | In Middle Vietnamese, it was spelled with the now-obsolete letter â¨êâ© to represent [β]. Can be realized as [v] in Southern speech through spelling pronunciation and in loanwords. | ||
X x | /s/ | In Middle Vietnamese, â¨xâ© was pronounced [É]. |
- The consonants also called with its phoneme with á», except k. So b will be bá», c will be cá» and so on.
Vowels
editPronunciation
editThe correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is somewhat complicated. In some cases, the same letter may represent several different sounds, and different letters may represent the same sound. This is because the orthography was designed centuries ago and the spoken language has changed, as shown in the chart directly above that contrasts the difference between Middle and Modern Vietnamese.[citation needed]
â¨iâ© and â¨yâ© are mostly equivalent, and there is no concrete rule that says when to use one or the other, except in sequences like â¨ayâ© and â¨uyâ© (i.e. tay 'arm, hand' is read as /tÄÌj/ while tai 'ear' is read as /tÄj/). There have been attempts since the late 20th century to standardize the orthography by replacing â¨yâ© with â¨iâ© when it represents a vowel, the latest being a decision from the Vietnamese Ministry of Education in 1984. These efforts seem to have had limited effect. In textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục ('Publishing House of Education'), â¨yâ© is used to represent /i/ only in Sino-Vietnamese words that are written with one letter â¨yâ© alone (diacritics can still be added, as in â¨Ã½â©, â¨á»·â©), at the beginning of a syllable when followed by â¨Ãªâ© (as in yếm, yết), after â¨uâ© and in the sequence â¨ayâ©; therefore such forms as *lý and *kỹ are not "standard", though they are much preferred elsewhere. Most people and the popular media continue to use the spelling that they are most accustomed to.[citation needed]
Spelling | Sound |
---|---|
a |  /a/ ([æ] in some dialects) except as below  /Ä/ in au /Äw/ and ay /Äj/ (but /a/ in ao /aw/ and ai /aj/)  /Äj/ before syllable-final nh /Å/ and ch /k/, see  Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch, nh  /É̯/ in Æ°a /ɨÉ̯/, ia /iÉ̯/ and ya /iÉ̯/  /É̯/ in ua except after q[note 1] |
Ä | Â /Ä/ |
â |  /ÉÌ/ |
e | Â /É/ |
ê |  /e/ except as below  /ÉÌj/ before syllable-final nh /Å/ and ch /k/, see  Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch, nh  /É̯/ in iê /iÉ̯/ and yê /iÉ̯/ |
i |  /i/ except as below  /j/ after any vowel letter |
o |  /É/ except as below  /Äw/ before ng and c[note 2]  /w/ after any vowel letter (= after a or e)  /w/ before any vowel letter except i (= before Ä, a or e) |
ô |  /o/ except as below  /ÉÌw/ before ng and c except after a u that is not preceded by a q[note 3]  /É̯/ in uô except after q[note 4] |
Æ¡ |  /É/ except as below  /É̯/ in Æ°Æ¡ /ɨÉ̯/ |
u |  /u/ except as below  /w/ after q or any vowel letter  /w/ before any vowel letter except a, ô and i  Before a, ô and i: /w/ if preceded by q, /u/ otherwise |
ư |  /ɨ/ |
y |  /i/ except as below  /j/ after any vowel letter except u (= after â and a) |
- ^ qua is pronounced /kwa/ except in quay, where it is pronounced /kwÄ/. When not preceded by q, ua is pronounced /uÉ̯/.
- ^ However, oong and ooc are pronounced /ÉÅ/ and /Ék/.
- ^ uông and uôc are pronounced /uÉ̯Å/ and /uÉ̯k/ when not preceded by a q.
- ^ quô is pronounced /kwo/ except in quông and quôc, where it is pronounced /kwÉÌw/. When not preceded by q, uô is pronounced /uÉ̯/.
The uses of â¨iâ© and â¨yâ© to represent the phoneme /i/ can be categorized as "standard" (as used in textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục) and "non-standard" as follows.
Context | "Standard" | "Non-standard" |
---|---|---|
In one-lettered non-Sino-Vietnamese syllables | i (e.g.: i tá», à á»i, ì ạch, Ỡôi, Äi á») | |
In one-lettered Sino-Vietnamese syllables | y (e.g.: y há»c, ý kiến, á»· lại) | |
Syllable-initial, not followed by ê | i (e.g.: á»a Äái, im lặng, Ãch lợi, á»u xìu) | |
Syllable-initial, followed by ê | y (e.g.: yếu á»t, yếm dãi, yết hầu) | |
After u | y (e.g.: uy lá»±c, huy hoà ng, khuya khoắt, tuyá»n má», khuyết táºt, khuá»·u tay, huýt sáo, khuynh hÆ°á»ng) | |
After qu, not followed by ê, nh | y (e.g.: quý giá, quấn quýt) | i (e.g.: quà giá, quấn quÃt) |
After qu, followed by ê, nh | y (e.g.: quyên góp, xảo quyá»t, mừng quýnh, hoa quỳnh) | |
After b, d, Ä, r, x | i (e.g.: bá»a Äặt, diêm dúa, Äá»ch thủ, rủ rá», triá»u Äại, xinh xắn) | |
After g, not followed by a, Ä, â, e, ê, o, ô, Æ¡, u, Æ° | i (e.g.: cái gì?, giữ gìn) | |
After h, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in non-Sino-Vietnamese syllables | i (e.g.: ti hÃ, kì cá», là nhÃ, mà mắt, tà xÃu) | |
After h, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in Sino-Vietnamese syllables | i (e.g.: hi vá»ng, kì thú, là luáºn, mÄ© thuáºt, giá» TÃ) | y (e.g.: hy vá»ng, kỳ thú, lý luáºn, mỹ thuáºt, giá» Tý) |
After ch, gh, kh, nh, ph, th | i (e.g.: chÃp hôi, ghi nhá», ý nghÄ©a, khiêu khÃch, nhà nhá», phiến Äá, buá»n thiu) | |
After n, s, v, not followed by any letter, in non-proper-noun syllables | i (e.g.: ni cô, si tình, vi khuẩn) | |
After n, s, v, not followed by any letter, in proper nouns | i (e.g.: Ni, Thuỵ Sĩ, Vi) | y (e.g.: Ny, Thụy Sỹ, Vy) |
After h, k, l, m, n, s, t, v, followed by a letter | i (e.g.: thÆ°Æ¡ng hiá»u, kiên trì, bại liá»t, ngôi miếu, nÅ©ng ná»u, siêu Äẳng, mẫn tiá»p, Äược viá»c) | |
In Vietnamese personal names, after a consonant | i | either i or y, depending on personal preference |
This "standard" set by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục is not definite. It is unknown why the literature books use Là while the history books use Lý.
Spelling
editVowel nuclei
editThe table below matches the vowels of Hanoi Vietnamese (written in the IPA) and their respective orthographic symbols used in the writing system.
Front Central Back Sound Spelling Sound Spelling Sound Spelling Centering /iÉ̯/ iê/ia* /ɨÉ̯/ Æ°Æ¡/Æ°a* /uÉ̯/ uô/ua* Close /i/ i, y /ɨ/ Æ° /u/ u Close-mid/
Mid/e/ ê /É/ Æ¡ /o/ ô /ÉÌ/ â Open-mid/
Open/É/ e /a/ a /É/ o /Ä/ Ä
Notes:
- The vowel /i/ is:
- usually written â¨iâ©: /sÇË/ = sÄ© (a suffix indicating profession, similar to the English suffix -er).
- sometimes written â¨yâ© after â¨hâ©, â¨kâ©, â¨lâ©, â¨mâ©, â¨nâ©, â¨sâ©, â¨tâ©, â¨vâ©, â¨xâ©: /mÇË/ = Mỹ 'America'
- It is always written â¨yâ© when:
- preceded by an orthographic vowel: /xwÄ«É̯n/ = khuyên 'to advise';
- at the beginning of a word derived from Chinese (written as â¨iâ© otherwise): /ÊÄ«É̯w/ = yêu 'to love'.
- The vowel /É/ is written â¨ooâ© before â¨câ© or â¨ngâ© (since â¨oâ© in that position represents /Äw/): /ÊÉÌk/ = oóc 'organ (musical)'; /kÇÅ kÉÌÅ/ = kÃnh coong. This generally only occurs in recent loanwords or when representing dialectal pronunciation.
- Similarly, the vowel /o/ is written â¨Ã´Ã´â© before â¨câ© or â¨ngâ©: /ÊÅÅ/ = ôông (Nghá» An/Hà TÄ©nh variant of ông /ÊÉÌÌwÅ/). But unlike â¨ooâ© being frequently used in onomatopoeia, transcriptions from other languages and words "borrowed" from Nghá» An/Hà TÄ©nh dialects (such as voá»c), â¨Ã´Ã´â© seems to be used solely to convey the feel of the Nghá» An/Hà TÄ©nh accents. In transcriptions, â¨Ã´â© is preferred (e.g. các-tông 'cardboard', ắc-coóc-Äê-ông 'accordion').
Diphthongs and triphthongs
editRising Vowels Rising-Falling Vowels Falling Vowels nucleus (V) /w/ on-glides /w/ + V + off-glide /j/ off-glides /w/ off-glides front e /wÉ/ oe/(q)ue* /wÉw/ oeo/(q)ueo* /Éw/ eo ê /we/ uê /ew/ êu i /wi/ uy /wiw/ uyu /iw/ iu ia/iê/yê* /wiÉ̯/ uyê/uya* /iÉ̯w/ iêu/yêu* central a /wa/ oa/(q)ua* /waj/ oai/(q)uai, /waw/ oao/(q)uao* /aj/ ai /aw/ ao Ä /wÄ/ oÄ/(q)uÄ* /wÄj/ oay/(q)uay* /Äj/ ay /Äw/ au â /wÉÌ/ uâ /wÉÌj/ uây /ÉÌj/ ây /ÉÌw/ âu Æ¡ /wÉ/ uÆ¡ /Éj/ Æ¡i /Éw/ Æ¡u Æ° /ɨj/ Æ°i /ɨw/ Æ°u Æ°a/Æ°Æ¡* /ɨÉ̯j/ Æ°Æ¡i /ɨÉ̯w/ Æ°Æ¡u back o /Éj/ oi ô /oj/ ôi u /uj/ ui ua/uô* /uÉ̯j/ uôi
Notes:
The glide /w/ is written:
- â¨uâ© after /k/ (spelled â¨qâ© in this instance)
- â¨oâ© in front of â¨aâ©, â¨Äâ©, or â¨eâ© except after â¨qâ©
- â¨oâ© following â¨aâ© and â¨eâ©
- â¨uâ© in all other cases; /Äw/ is written as â¨auâ© instead of *â¨Äwâ© (cf. â¨aoâ© /aw/), and that /i/ is written as â¨yâ© after â¨yâ©
The off-glide /j/ is written as â¨iâ© except after â¨Ã¢â© and â¨Äâ©, where it is written as â¨yâ©; /Äj/ is written as â¨ayâ© instead of *â¨Äyâ© (cf. ai /aj/).
The diphthong /iÉ̯/ is written:
- â¨iaâ© at the end of a syllable: /mÇÉ̯/ = mÃa 'sugar cane'
- iê before a consonant or off-glide: /mÇÉ̯Å/ = miếng 'piece'; /sÄ«É̯w/ = xiêu 'to slope, slant'
- The â¨iâ© of the diphthong changes to â¨yâ© after â¨uâ©:
- â¨yaâ©: /xwÄ«É̯/ = khuya 'late at night'
- â¨yêâ©: /xwÄ«É̯n/ = khuyên 'to advise'
- â¨iê⩠changes to â¨yê⩠at the beginning of a syllable (â¨iaâ© does not change):
- /Ä«É̯n/ = yên 'calm'; /ÇÉ̯w/ yếu 'weak, feeble'
The diphthong /uÉ̯/ is written:
- â¨uaâ© at the end of a syllable: /mÅ«É̯/ = mua 'to buy'
- â¨uô⩠before a consonant or off-glide: /mÅ«É̯n/ = muôn 'ten thousand'; /sÅ«É̯j/ = xuôi 'down'
The diphthong /ɨÉ̯/ is written:
- â¨Æ°aâ© at the end of a syllable: /mɨÌÉ̯/ = mÆ°a 'to rain'
- â¨Æ°Æ¡â© before a consonant or off-glide: /mɨÌÉ̯Å/ = mÆ°Æ¡ng 'irrigation canal'; /tɨÌÉ̯j/ = tÆ°á»i 'to water, irrigate, sprinkle'
Tone marks
editVietnamese is a tonal language, so the meaning of each word depends on the pitch in which it is pronounced. Tones are marked in the IPA as suprasegmentals following the phonemic value. Some tones are also associated with a glottalization pattern.
There are six distinct tones in the standard northern dialect. The first one ("level tone") is not marked and the other five are indicated by diacritics applied to the vowel part of the syllable. The tone names are chosen such that the name of each tone is spoken in the tone it identifies.
In the south, there is a merging of the há»i and ngã tones, in effect leaving five tones.[citation needed]
Order | Diacritic | Symbol | Input keys | Name | IPA diacritic | Vowels with diacritic | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TELEX | VNI | ||||||
1 | unmarked | N/A | Z *
|
0 *
|
ngang | mid level, ˧ | A/a, Ä/Ä, Ã/â, E/e, Ã/ê, I/i, O/o, Ã/ô, Æ /Æ¡, U/u, Ư/Æ°, Y/y |
2 | acute accent | á | S
|
1
|
sắc | high rising, ˧˥ | Ã/á, Ắ/ắ, Ấ/ấ, Ã/é, Ế/ế, Ã/Ã, Ã/ó, á»/á», á»/á», Ã/ú, Ứ/ứ, Ã/ý |
3 | grave accent | Ã | F
|
2
|
huyá»n | low falling, ˨˩ | Ã/à , Ằ/ằ, Ầ/ầ, Ã/è, á»/á», Ã/ì, Ã/ò, á»/á», á»/á», Ã/ù, Ừ/ừ, Ỳ/ỳ |
4 | hook above | ả | R
|
3
|
há»i | mid falling, ˧˩ (Northern); dipping, ˨˩˥ (Southern) | Ả/ả, Ẳ/ẳ, Ẩ/ẩ, Ẻ/ẻ, á»/á», á»/á», á»/á», á»/á», á»/á», Ủ/ủ, Ử/á», Ỷ/á»· |
5 | tilde[14] | ã | X
|
4
|
ngã | glottalized rising, Ë§Ë¥Ë (Northern); slightly lengthened dấu há»i tone (Southern) | Ã/ã, Ẵ/ẵ, Ẫ/ẫ, Ẽ/ẽ, á»/á» , Ĩ/Ä©, Ã/õ, á»/á», á» /ỡ, Ũ/Å©, á»®/ữ, Ỹ/ỹ |
6 | dot below | ạ | J
|
5
|
nặng | glottalized falling, Ë§Ë¨Ë (Northern); low rising, ˩˧ (Southern) | Ạ/ạ, Ặ/ặ, Ậ/áº, Ẹ/ẹ, á»/á», á»/á», á»/á», á»/á», Ợ/ợ, Ụ/ụ, á»°/á»±, á»´/ỵ |
- * =
Z
(in TELEX) and0
(in VNI) keys are used to remove the mark. For example, in VNI,U2
=> â¨Ã¹â©, then press0
=> â¨uâ©. - Unmarked vowels are pronounced with a level voice, in the middle of the speaking range.
- The grave accent indicates that the speaker should start somewhat low and drop slightly in tone, with the voice becoming increasingly breathy.
- The hook indicates in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker should start in the middle range and fall, but in Southern Vietnamese that the speaker should start somewhat low and fall, then rise (as when asking a question in English).
- In the North, a perispomeni indicates that the speaker should start mid, break off (with a glottal stop), then start again and rise like a question in tone. In the South, it is realized identically to the Há»i tone.
- The acute accent indicates that the speaker should start mid and rise sharply in tone.
- The dot or cross signifies in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker starts low and fall lower in tone, with the voice becoming increasingly creaky and ending in a glottal stop.
In syllables where the vowel part consists of more than one vowel (such as diphthongs and triphthongs), the placement of the tone is still a matter of debate. Generally, there are two methodologies, an "old style" and a "new style". While the "old style" emphasizes aesthetics by placing the tone mark as close as possible to the center of the word (by placing the tone mark on the last vowel if an ending consonant part exists and on the next-to-last vowel if the ending consonant does not exist, as in hóa, hủy), the "new style" emphasizes linguistic principles and tries to apply the tone mark on the main vowel (as in hoá, huá»·). In both styles, when one vowel already has a quality diacritic on it, the tone mark must be applied to it as well, regardless of where it appears in the syllable (thus thuế is acceptable while *thúê is not). In the case of the â¨Æ°Æ¡â© diphthong, the mark is placed on the â¨Æ¡â©. The â¨uâ© in â¨quâ© is considered part of the consonant. Currently, the new style is usually used in textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục, while most people still prefer the old style in casual uses. Among Overseas Vietnamese communities, the old style is predominant for all purposes.
In lexical ordering, differences in letters are treated as primary, differences in tone markings as secondary and differences in case as tertiary differences. (Letters include for instance â¨aâ© and â¨Äâ© but not â¨áº³â©. Older dictionaries also treated digraphs and trigraphs like â¨châ© and â¨nghâ© as base letters.[15]) Ordering according to primary and secondary differences proceeds syllable by syllable. According to this principle, a dictionary lists tuân thủ before tuần chay because the secondary difference in the first syllable takes precedence over the primary difference in the second syllable.
Structure
editIn the past, syllables in multisyllabic words were concatenated with hyphens, but this practice has died out and hyphenation is now reserved for word-borrowings from other languages. A written syllable consists of at most three parts, in the following order from left to right:
- An optional beginning consonant part
- A required vowel syllable nucleus and the tone mark, if needed, applied above or below it
- An ending consonant part, can only be one of the following: â¨câ©, â¨châ©, â¨mâ©, â¨nâ©, â¨ngâ©, â¨nhâ©, â¨pâ©, â¨tâ©, or nothing.[16]
History
editSince the beginning of the Chinese rule 111 BC, literature, government papers, scholarly works, and religious scripture were all written in classical Chinese (chữ Hán) while indigenous writing in chữ Hán started around the ninth century.[17] Since the 12th century, several Vietnamese words started to be written in chữ Nôm, using variant Chinese characters, each of them representing one word. The system was based on chữ Hán, but was also supplemented with Vietnamese-invented characters (chữ thuần nôm, proper Nôm characters) to represent native Vietnamese words.
The name
editPeople have called the Latinized script of Vietnamese chữ Quá»c ngữ in 1867 as the latest.[18] In 1867, scholar TrÆ°Æ¡ng VÄ©nh Ký published two grammar books. The first book is Mẹo luáºt dạy há»c tiếng pha-lang-sa (Tips to teach and learn French), a Vietnamese book written in chữ Quá»c ngữ about French grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was called chữ quá»c ngá»± (not ngữ). The second book is Abrégé de grammaire annamite (Simplification of Annamite grammar), a French book about Vietnamese grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was called "lâalphabet européen" (European alphabet), les caractères latins (Latin characters). On Gia Dinh Bao April 15th issue of 1867, when mentioned the French book about Vietnamese grammar, the name chữ quá»c ngữ was used to indicate the Latinized script of Vietnamese.[19]
Creation of chữ Quá»c ngữ
editAs early as 1620, with the work of Francisco de Pina, Portuguese and Italian Jesuit missionaries in Vietnam began using Latin script to transcribe the Vietnamese language as an assistance for learning the language.[1][3] The work was continued by the Avignonese Alexandre de Rhodes. Building on previous dictionaries by Gaspar do Amaral and António Barbosa, Rhodes compiled the Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum, a VietnameseâPortugueseâLatin dictionary, which was later printed in Rome in 1651, using their spelling system.[1][20] These efforts led eventually to the development of the present Vietnamese alphabet. For 200 years, chữ Quá»c ngữ was used within the Catholic community.[21][22] However, works written in the Vietnamese alphabet was in the minority and Catholic works in chữ Nôm were significantly more widespread. Chữ Nôm was the primary writing system used by Vietnamese Catholics.[22]
Colonial period
editIn 1910, the French colonial administration enforced chữ Quá»c ngữ.[23] The Latin alphabet then became a means to publish Vietnamese popular literature, which was disparaged as vulgar by the Chinese-educated imperial elites.[24] Historian Pamela A. Pears asserted that by instituting the Latin alphabet in Vietnam, the French cut the Vietnamese from their traditional Hán Nôm literature.[25] An important reason why Latin script became the standard writing system in Vietnam but not in Cambodia and Laos, which were both dominated by the French for a similar amount of time under the same colonial framework, had to do with the Nguyá» n Emperors of Vietnam heavily promoting its usage.[26] According to the historian Liam Kelley in his 2016 work "Emperor Thà nh Tháiâs Educational Revolution" neither the French nor the revolutionaries had enough power to spread the usage of chữ Quá»c ngữ down to the village level.[26] It was by imperial decree in 1906 of Emperor Thà nh Thái, that parents could decide whether their children will follow a curriculum in Hán vÄn (æ¼¢æ) or Nam âm (åé³, 'Southern sound', the contemporary Vietnamese name for chữ Quá»c ngữ).[26] This decree was issued at the same time when other social changes, such as the cutting of long male hair, were occurring.[26] The main reason for the popularisation of the Latin alphabet in Vietnam/Äại Nam during the Nguyá» n dynasty (the French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin) was because of the pioneering efforts by intellectuals from French Cochinchina combined with the progressive and scientific policies of the French government in French Indochina, that created the momentum for the usage of chữ Quá»c ngữ to spread.[26]
From the first days it was recognized that the Chinese language was a barrier between us and the natives; the education provided by means of the hieroglyphic characters was completely beyond us; this writing makes possible only with difficulty transmitting to the population the diverse ideas which are necessary for them at the level of their new political and commercial situation. Consequently we are obliged to follow the traditions of our own system of education; it is the only one which can bring close to us the Annamites of the colony by inculcating in them the principles of European civilization and isolating them from the hostile influence of our neighbors.[27]
ââIn a letter dated January 15, 1866, Paulin Vial, Directeur du Cabinet du Gouverneur de la Cochinchine
Since the 1920s, the Vietnamese mostly use chữ Quá»c ngữ, and new Vietnamese terms for new items or words are often calqued from Hán Nôm. Some French had originally planned to replace Vietnamese with French, but this never was a serious project, given the small number of French settlers compared with the native population. The French had to reluctantly accept the use of chữ Quá»c ngữ to write Vietnamese since this writing system, created by Portuguese missionaries, is based on Portuguese orthography, not French.[28]
Mass education
editBetween 1907 and 1908, the short-lived Tonkin Free School promulgated chữ Quá»c ngữ and taught French language to the general population.
In 1917, the French system suppressed Vietnam's Confucian examination system, viewed as an aristocratic system linked with the "ancient regime", thereby forcing Vietnamese elites to educate their offspring in the French language education system. Emperor Khải Äá»nh declared the traditional writing system abolished in 1918.[24] While traditional nationalists favoured the Confucian examination system and the use of chữ Hán, Vietnamese revolutionaries, progressive nationalists, and pro-French elites viewed the French education system as a means to "liberate" the Vietnamese from old Chinese domination and the unsatisfactory "outdated" Confucian examination system, to democratize education and to help bridge Vietnamese to European philosophies.
The French colonial system then set up another educational system, teaching Vietnamese as a first language using chữ Quá»c ngữ in primary school and then the French language (taught in chữ Quá»c ngữ). Hundreds of thousands of textbooks for primary education began to be published in chữ Quá»c ngữ, with the unintentional result of turning the script into the popular medium for the expression for Vietnamese culture.[29]
Late 20th century to present
editTypesetting and printing Vietnamese has been challenging due to its number of accents/diacritics.[30][31][32] This had led to the use of accent and diacritic-less names in Overseas Vietnamese, such as Viet instead of the proper Viá»t. Contemporary Vietnamese texts sometimes include words which have not been adapted to modern Vietnamese orthography, especially for documents written in chữ Hán. The Vietnamese language itself has been likened to a system akin to ruby characters elsewhere in Asia. French, which left a mark on the Vietnamese language in the form of loanwords and other influences, is no longer as widespread in Vietnam, with English or International English the preferred European language for commerce.
Computing
editThe universal character set Unicode has full support for the Latin Vietnamese writing system, although it does not have a separate segment for it. The required characters that other languages use are scattered throughout the Basic Latin, Latin-1 Supplement, Latin Extended-A and Latin Extended-B blocks; those that remain (such as the letters with dau hoi) are placed in the Latin Extended Additional block. An ASCII-based writing convention, Vietnamese Quoted Readable and several byte-based encodings including VSCII (TCVN), VNI, VISCII and Windows-1258 were widely used before Unicode became popular. Most new documents now exclusively use the Unicode format UTF-8.
Unicode allows the user to choose between precomposed characters and combining characters in inputting Vietnamese. Because in the past some fonts implemented combining characters in a nonstandard way (see Verdana font), most people use precomposed characters when composing Vietnamese-language documents (except on Windows where Windows-1258 used combining characters).
Most keyboards on modern phone and computer operating systems, including iOS,[33] Android[34] and MacOS,[35] have now supported the Vietnamese language and direct input of diacritics by default. Previously, Vietnamese users had to manually install free software such as Unikey on computers or Laban Key on phones to type Vietnamese diacritics. These keyboards support input methods such as Telex.
Unicode code points
editThe following table provides Unicode code points for all non-ASCII Vietnamese letters.
Unmarked | Grave | Hook | Perispomeni | Acute | Dot |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ì (U+0300) | Ì (U+0309) | Ì (U+0303) | Ì (U+0301) | Ì£ (U+0323) | |
Uppercase letters | |||||
A | à (U+00C0) | Ả (U+1EA2) | à (U+00C3) | à (U+00C1) | Ạ(U+1EA0) |
Ä (U+0102) | Ằ (U+1EB0) | Ẳ (U+1EB2) | Ẵ (U+1EB4) | Ắ (U+1EAE) | Ặ (U+1EB6) |
à (U+00C2) | Ầ (U+1EA6) | Ẩ (U+1EA8) | Ẫ (U+1EAA) | Ấ (U+1EA4) | Ậ (U+1EAC) |
Ä (U+0110) | |||||
E | à (U+00C8) | Ẻ (U+1EBA) | Ẽ (U+1EBC) | à (U+00C9) | Ẹ (U+1EB8) |
à (U+00CA) | Ỡ(U+1EC0) | Ỡ(U+1EC2) | Ỡ(U+1EC4) | Ế (U+1EBE) | Ỡ(U+1EC6) |
I | à (U+00CC) | Ỡ(U+1EC8) | Ĩ (U+0128) | à (U+00CD) | Ỡ(U+1ECA) |
O | Ã (U+00D2) | á» (U+1ECE) | Ã (U+00D5) | Ã (U+00D3) | á» (U+1ECC) |
à (U+00D4) | Ỡ(U+1ED2) | Ỡ(U+1ED4) | Ỡ(U+1ED6) | Ỡ(U+1ED0) | Ỡ(U+1ED8) |
Æ (U+01A0) | á» (U+1EDC) | á» (U+1EDE) | á» (U+1EE0) | á» (U+1EDA) | Ợ (U+1EE2) |
U | à (U+00D9) | Ủ (U+1EE6) | Ũ (U+0168) | à (U+00DA) | Ụ (U+1EE4) |
Ư (U+01AF) | Ừ (U+1EEA) | Ử (U+1EEC) | Ữ (U+1EEE) | Ứ (U+1EE8) | Ự (U+1EF0) |
Y | Ỳ (U+1EF2) | Ỷ (U+1EF6) | Ỹ (U+1EF8) | à (U+00DD) | Ỵ (U+1EF4) |
Lowercase letters | |||||
a | à (U+00E0) | ả (U+1EA3) | ã (U+00E3) | á (U+00E1) | ạ (U+1EA1) |
Ä (U+0103) | ằ (U+1EB1) | ẳ (U+1EB3) | ẵ (U+1EB5) | ắ (U+1EAF) | ặ (U+1EB7) |
â (U+00E2) | ầ (U+1EA7) | ẩ (U+1EA9) | ẫ (U+1EAB) | ấ (U+1EA5) | Ạ(U+1EAD) |
Ä (U+0111) | |||||
e | è (U+00E8) | ẻ (U+1EBB) | ẽ (U+1EBD) | é (U+00E9) | ẹ (U+1EB9) |
ê (U+00EA) | Ỡ(U+1EC1) | Ỡ(U+1EC3) | Ỡ(U+1EC5) | ế (U+1EBF) | Ỡ(U+1EC7) |
i | ì (U+00EC) | Ỡ(U+1EC9) | ĩ (U+0129) | à (U+00ED) | Ỡ(U+1ECB) |
o | ò (U+00F2) | Ỡ(U+1ECF) | õ (U+00F5) | ó (U+00F3) | Ỡ(U+1ECD) |
ô (U+00F4) | Ỡ(U+1ED3) | Ỡ(U+1ED5) | Ỡ(U+1ED7) | Ỡ(U+1ED1) | Ỡ(U+1ED9) |
ơ (U+01A1) | Ỡ(U+1EDD) | Ỡ(U+1EDF) | ỡ (U+1EE1) | Ỡ(U+1EDB) | ợ (U+1EE3) |
u | ù (U+00F9) | ủ (U+1EE7) | ũ (U+0169) | ú (U+00FA) | ụ (U+1EE5) |
ư (U+01B0) | ừ (U+1EEB) | Ỡ(U+1EED) | ữ (U+1EEF) | ứ (U+1EE9) | ự (U+1EF1) |
y | ỳ (U+1EF3) | ỷ (U+1EF7) | ỹ (U+1EF9) | ý (U+00FD) | ỵ (U+1EF5) |
See also
edit- Portuguese orthography
- Special characters:
- Ä, Ã, Ä, Ã, Ã, Æ , Ư
- Dot (diacritic)
- Hook above
- Horn (diacritic)
- Historic Writing
- "Chữ Hán", classical Chinese written in Vietnam (Han characters)
- "Chữ Nôm", former script used to write Vietnamese using Han and Nom (invented characters) words
- Coding and Input Methods:
- Telex, the oldest standard input method for the Vietnamese alphabet on electronic devices.
- VNI, another input and encoding convention for Vietnamese alphabet.
- VIQR, another standard 7-bit input method for Vietnamese alphabet.
- VISCII, another standard 8-bit encoding for Vietnamese alphabet.
- Unicode, character encoding standard for most of the world's writing systems
- Vietnamese Braille
- Vietnamese calligraphy
- Vietnamese phonology
- Francisco de Pina
- Alexandre de Rhodes
References
edit- ^ a b c d Jacques, Roland (2002). Portuguese Pioneers of Vietnamese Linguistics Prior to 1650 â Pionniers Portugais de la Linguistique Vietnamienne Jusqu'en 1650 (in English and French). Bangkok, Thailand: Orchid Press. ISBNÂ 974-8304-77-9.
- ^ Jacques, Roland (2004). "Bá» Äà o Nha và công trình sáng chế chữ quá»c ngữ: Phải chÄng cần viết lại lá»ch sá»?" Translated by Nguyá» n ÄÄng Trúc. In Các nhà truyá»n giáo Bá» Äà o Nha và thá»i kỳ Äầu của Giáo há»i Công giáo Viá»t Nam (Quyá»n 1) â Les missionnaires portugais et les débuts de l'Eglise catholique au Viêt-nam (Tome 1) (in Vietnamese & French). Reichstett, France: Äá»nh HÆ°á»ng Tùng ThÆ°. ISBN 2-912554-26-8.
- ^ a b Trần, Quá»c Anh; Phạm, Thá» Kiá»u Ly (October 2019). Từ NÆ°á»c Mặn Äến Roma: Những Äóng góp của các giáo sÄ© Dòng Tên trong quá trình La tinh hoá tiếng Viá»t á» thế ká»· 17. Conference 400 nÄm hình thà nh và phát triá»n chữ Quá»c ngữ trong lá»ch sá» loan báo Tin Mừng tại Viá»t Nam. Ho Chi Minh City: Ủy ban VÄn hóa, Catholic Bishops' Conference of Vietnam.
- ^ Tran (2022).
- ^ Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias, eds. (2021). The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia (PDF). De Gruyter. pp. 898â899. doi:10.1515/9783110558142. ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2. S2CID 242359233.
- ^ Haudricourt, André-Georges. 2010. "The Origin of the Peculiarities of the Vietnamese Alphabet." Mon-Khmer Studies 39: 89â104. Translated from: Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1949. "L'origine Des Particularités de L'alphabet Vietnamien." Dân Viêt-Nam 3: 61â68.
- ^ Jakob Rupert Friederichsen Opening Up Knowledge Production Through Participatory Research? Frankfurt 2009 [6.1 History of Science and Research in Vietnam] Page 126 "6.1.2 French colonial science in Vietnam: With the colonial era, deep changes took place in education, communication, and ... French colonizers installed a modern European system of education to replace the literary and Confucianism-based model, they promoted a romanized Vietnamese script (Quá»c Ngữ) to replace the Sino-Vietnamese characters (Hán Nôm)"
- ^ "Vietnam Alphabet". vietnamesetypography.
- ^ "Do you know How to pronounce Igrec?". HowToPronounce.com. Retrieved 2017-10-30.
- ^ André-Georges Haudricourt. âThe two bâs in the Vietnamese dictionary of Alexandre de Rhodesâ. HAL, Alexis Michaud dá»ch, trang 1.
- ^ Alexandre de Rhodes. Dictionarium Anamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum. Romae, Sacra Congregationis de propaganda fide, nÄm 1651, trang chứa cá»t 65, cá»t 191 trong phần chÃnh vÄn của sách (sách không Äược Äánh sá» trang).
- ^ Kenneth J. Gregerson. "A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology". Bulletin de la Société des Ãtudes Indochinoises, Nouvelle Série â Tome XLIV, Nº 2, 1969, page 151, 173.
- ^ André-Georges Haudricourt. âThe origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabetâ. HAL, Alexis Michaud dá»ch, trang 12.
- ^ Mistakenly encoded in Unicode as the tilde. However, the tilde was used for something different in Middle Vietnamese, the so-called Vietnamese apex.
- ^ See for example Lê Bá Khanh; Lê Bá Kông (1998) [1975]. VietnameseâEnglish / EnglishâVietnamese Dictionary (7th ed.). New York City: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-87052-924-2.
- ^ "vietnamese Alphabet". Omniglot.com. 2014.
- ^ Kornicki 2017, p. 568.
- ^ John DeFrancis. Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam. The Hague, Mouton Publishers, 1977, page 82â84.
- ^ John DeFrancis. Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam. The Hague, Mouton Publishers, 1977, page 82.
- ^ Tran, Anh Q. (October 2018). "The Historiography of the Jesuits in Vietnam: 1615â1773 and 1957â2007". Jesuit Historiography Online. Brill.
- ^ Li 2020, p. 106.
- ^ a b Ostrowski, Brian Eugene (2010). "The Rise of Christian Nôm Literature in Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Fusing European Content and Local Expression". In Wilcox, Wynn (ed.). Vietnam and the West: New Approaches. Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications, Cornell university Press. pp. 23, 38. ISBN 9780877277828.
- ^ "Quoc-ngu | Vietnamese writing system". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-04-13.
- ^ a b Nguyên Tùng, "Langues, écritures et littératures au Viêt-nam", Aséanie, Sciences humaines en Asie du Sud-Est, Vol. 2000/5, pp. 135-149.
- ^ Pamela A. Pears (2006). Remnants of Empire in Algeria and Vietnam: Women, Words and War. Lexington Books. p. 18. ISBN 0-7391-2022-0. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
- ^ a b c d e Nguyá» n Quang Duy (12 September 2018). "Quá»c ngữ và ná» lá»±c 'thoát Hán' của các vua nhà Nguyá» n" (in Vietnamese). NgÆ°á»i Viá»t Daily News. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
- ^ Li 2020, p. 107.
- ^ Trần BÃch San. "Thi cá» và giáo dục Viá»t Nam dÆ°á»i thá»i thuá»c Pháp" (in Vietnamese). Note 3. "The French had to accept reluctantly the existence of chữ quá»c ngữ. The propagation of chữ quá»c ngữ in Cochinchina was, in fact, not without resistance [by French authority or pro-French Vietnamese elite] [...] Chữ quá»c ngữ was created by Portuguese missionaries according to the phonemic orthography of Portuguese language. The Vietnamese could not use chữ quá»c ngữ to learn French script. The French would mispronounce chữ quá»c ngữ in French orthography, particularly people's names and place names. Thus, the French constantly disparaged chữ quá»c ngữ because of its uselessness in helping with the propagation of French script."
- ^ Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. pp. 127-128.
- ^ Wellisch, Hans H. (1978). The Conversion of Scripts, Its Nature, History, and Utilization. Wiley. ISBNÂ 978-0-471-01620-5.
- ^ Language Monthly. Praetorius. 1987.
- ^ Sassoon, Rosemary (1995). The acquisition of a second writing system. Internet Archive. Oxford [England]Â : Intellect. ISBNÂ 978-1-871516-43-2.
- ^ Anh, Hao (2021-09-21). "HÆ°á»ng dẫn gõ tiếng Viá»t trên iOS 15 bằng tÃnh nÄng lÆ°á»t phÃm QuickPath". VietNamNet (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2022-03-20.
- ^ "Set up Gboard on Android". Google Support. Retrieved 2022-03-20.
- ^ Phan, Kim Long. "UniKey in macOS and iOS". UniKey. Retrieved 2022-03-20.
Bibliography
edit- Gregerson, Kenneth J. (1969). A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology. Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, 44, 135â193. (Published version of the author's MA thesis, University of Washington). (Reprinted 1981, Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics).
- Haudricourt, André-Georges (1949). "Origine des particularités de l'alphabet vietnamien (English translation as: The origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabet)" (PDF). Dân Viá»t-Nam. 3: 61â68.
- Healy, Dana.(2003). Teach Yourself Vietnamese, Hodder Education, London.
- Kornicki, Peter (2017), "Sino-Vietnamese literature", in Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 568â578, ISBN 978-0-199-35659-1.
- Li, Yu (2020). The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Routledge. ISBNÂ 978-1-00-069906-7.
- Nguyen, Äang Liêm. (1970). Vietnamese pronunciation. PALI language texts: Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-87022-462-X.
- Nguyá» n, Äình-Hoà . (1955). Quá»c-ngữ: The modern writing system in Vietnam. Washington, D. C.: Author.
- Nguyá» n, Äình-Hoà (1992). "Vietnamese phonology and graphemic borrowings from Chinese: The Book of 3,000 Characters revisited". Mon-Khmer Studies. 20: 163â182.
- Nguyá» n, Äình-Hoà . (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.), The world's writing systems, (pp. 691â699). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
- Nguyá» n, Äình-Hoà . (1997). Vietnamese: Tiếng Viá»t không son phấn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 1-55619-733-0.
- Pham, Andrea Hoa. (2003). Vietnamese tone: A new analysis. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Routledge. (Published version of author's 2001 PhD dissertation, University of Florida: Hoa, Pham. Vietnamese tone: Tone is not pitch). ISBNÂ 0-415-96762-7.
- Pham, Thi Kieu Ly (2018). La grammatisation du vietnamien (1615â1919): histoire des grammaires et de l'écriture romanisée du vietnamien (PhD). Université Sorbonne Paris Cité.
- Sassoon, Rosemary (1995). The Acquisition of a Second Writing System (illustrated, reprint ed.). Intellect Books. ISBN 1871516439. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
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- Tran, Anh Q. (2022). "Catholicism and the Development of the Vietnamese Alphabet, 1620â1898". Journal of Vietnamese Studies. 17 (2â3): 9â37. doi:10.1525/vs.2022.17.2-3.9. S2CIDÂ 250513843.
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Further reading
edit- Nguyen, A. M. (2006). Let's learn the Vietnamese alphabet. Las Vegas: Viet Baby. ISBNÂ 0-9776482-0-6
- Shih, Virginia Jing-yi. Quoc Ngu Revolution: A Weapon of Nationalism in Vietnam. 1991.
External links
edit- Media related to Vietnamese writing at Wikimedia Commons
- Vietnamese Unicode FAQs